GENERAL CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS AGH

Format: B5

Wydział: Zarządzanie

Contents

1. Structure of matter and basic laws of chemistry..13

Zbigniew Szklarz

1.1. Introduction..13

1.2.Basic concepts of chemistry ..14

1.3.Structure of matter..17

1.3.1.Structure of atom..17

1.3.2. Periodic table of elements (PTE)..25

1.3.3.Structure of molecule and chemical bonds..27

1.4.Basic laws of chemistry..35Literature..36

2. Classification of the chemical elements..37

Urszula Lelek-Borkowska, Maria Starowicz

2.1.Chemical elements ..37

2.1.1. Periodic table of elements..37

2.1.2.Electron blocks in periodic table..39

2.1.3. Periodic trends in chemical properties of elements..40

2.1.4.General characteristic of metals..43

2.1.5.General characteristic of non-metals..43

2.1.6.General characteristic of semi-metals..44

2.2.Hydrogen..45

2.2.1.General characteristics..45

2.2.2.Physical properties..45

2.2.3.Chemical properties..46

2.2.4. Production..46

2.2.5. Compounds..47

2.2.6. Application..48

2.3.Alkali metals (lithium family)..49

2.3.1.General characteristics..49

2.3.2.Physical properties..49

2.3.3.Chemical properties..50

2.3.4. Production..51

2.3.5.Compounds and application..51

2.4.Alkaline earth metals (beryllium family) ..52

2.4.1.General characteristics..52

2.4.2.Physical properties..52

2.4.3.Chemical properties..53

2.4.4. Production..54

2.4.5.Compounds and application..54

2.5.Boron family..552.5.1.General characteristics..55

2.5.2.Physical properties..562.5.3.Chemical properties..56

2.5.4. Production..57

2.5.5.Compounds and application..58

2.6.Carbon family ..59

2.6.1.General characteristics..59

2.6.2.Physical properties..59

2.6.3.Chemical properties..61

2.6.4. Production..62

2.6.5.Compounds and application..63

2.7.Nitrogen family ..65

2.7.1.General characteristics..65

2.7.2.Physical properties..65

2.7.3.Chemical properties..67

2.7.4. Production..67

2.7.5.Compounds and application..67

2.8.Oxygen family..68

2.8.1.General characteristics..68

2.8.2.Physical properties..70

2.8.3.Chemical properties..70

2.8.4. Production..70

2.8.5.Compounds and application..71

2.9.Halogen (fluorine family)..72

2.9.1.General characteristics..72

2.9.2.Physical properties..72

2.9.3.Chemical properties..73

2.9.4. Production..732.9.5.Compounds and application..74

2.10.Noble gases (helium family) ..74

2.10.1.General characteristics..74

2.10.2.Physical properties..75

2.10.3.Chemical properties..75

2.10.4. Production..76

2.10.5.Compounds and application..76

2.11. D-block elements ..76

2.11.1.General characteristics..76

2.11.2. Variable oxidation stages..78

2.11.3. Formation of complex ions ..79

2.11.4.Colored ion formation..79

2.11.5. Preparation of transition metal ..80

2.11.6.Scandium family..80

2.11.7. Titanium family ..81

2.11.8. Vanadium family..82

2.11.9.Chromium family..83

2.11.10.Manganese family..83

2.11.11.Iron triad (Groups 8, 9, 10) ..84

2.11.12.Platinum group elements (PGEs) ..87

2.11.13.Copper family..87

2.11.14.Zinc family ..88

2.12.F-block elements..89

Literature..90

3. Classification of inorganic compounds and types of chemical reactions..91

Maria Starowicz

3.1.Classification of inorganic compounds ..91

3.1.1. Oxides..92

3.1.2. Hydrides..97

3.1.3.Hydroxides (bases)..99

3.1.4. Acids.. 101

3.1.5. Salts.. 104

3.2. Types of chemical reactions.. 109

3.2.1.Synthesis reaction (combination reaction).. 109

3.2.2.Decomposition reaction.. 109

3.2.3. Replacement reaction.. 109

3.2.4. Red-ox reaction.. 110

3.2.5.Other criteria for classification of chemical reactions.. 113

Literature.. 115

4. Basic calculations in chemistry.. 116

Bartosz Grysakowski

4.1.Stoichiometry and chemical reaction balancing.. 116

4.1.1. Redox reactions.. 126

4.1.2.Composition of compounds.. 142

4.1.3.Calculations based on chemical reaction equations.. 147

4.2.Compositions of mixtures and solutions.. 151

4.2.1.Concentration and dilution.. 159

4.2.2. Reactions in solutions.. 166

4.3.Basic calculations in thermochemistry.. 170

4.3.1.Hess’s law .. 172

4.3.2.Kirchhoff’s law.. 176

5. States of matter.. 182

Alicja Łukaszczyk

5.1.General properties of gases and liquids.. 182

5.2.Densities of liquids, solid bodies, and gases.. 184

5.3.Application of density measurements.. 185

5.4. Gaseous state .. 185

5.4.1.The ideal gas law.. 185

5.4.2.Boyle–Mariotte law.. 187

5.4.3.Gay-Lussac’s law.. 188

5.4.4.The ideal gas law.. 192

5.4.5.Molar gas constant R.. 193

5.4.6.Dalton’s law.. 194

5.4.7.Diffusion of gases.. 197

5.4.8.Kinetic energy of gas molecules.. 198

5.4.9.Ideal gas energy.. 199

5.4.10.Real gases .. 200

5.5.Liquid state.. 202

5.5.1.Surface tension.. 202

5.5.2.Liquid viscosity.. 203

5.6.General characteristics of solids .. 205

5.6.1.Geometric classification of solids.. 205

5.6.2.Electronic classification of solids.. 205

5.6.3.Crystal system.. 206

5.7.Liquid crystals .. 208

Literature.. 209

6. Chemical kinetics and statics.. 210

Dominika Święch

6.1.Chemical kinetics .. 210

6.1.1.Microscopic theory of chemical reaction kinetics.. 210

6.1.2.Definition of reaction rates (speed of reaction) and rate laws.. 212

6.1.3. Determination of relationship betweenreactant concentration and time.. 214

6.1.4.Half-life of reactions.. 218

6.1.5. Reaction mechanism and rate lawfor elementary reaction steps .. 218

6.1.6. Factors affecting reaction rate.. 220

6.2.Chemical statics .. 224

6.2.1.Chemical equilibrium and equilibrium constant.. 224

6.2.2.Homogenous and heterogeneous equilibria.. 225

6.2.3. Le Châtelier’s principle.. 228

Literature.. 233

7. Chemistry of solutions.. 234

Urszula Lelek-Borkowska

7.1. Solutions.. 234

7.1.1. Types of mixtures – definitions.. 234

7.1.2. Formation of solutions.. 236

7.1.3. Solubility.. 237

7.2.Expressions of solution content.. 238

7.2.1.Mass (weight) percent.. 238

7.2.2. Volume percent .. 239

7.2.3.Molar concentration.. 239

7.2.4.Normal concentration.. 240

7.2.5. Molarity.. 242

7.2.6.Molar fraction (mole fraction).. 243

7.3.Ideal and real solutions.. 244

7.3.1. Activity.. 245

7.3.2.Henry’s law.. 245

7.3.3. Raoult’s law.. 246

7.3.4.Distillation, rectification.. 248

7.3.5.Cryoscopic and ebulioscopic effects.. 248

7.3.6.Diffusion, Fick’s law.. 249

7.3.7. Osmosis.. 250

7.4. Water and water solutions .. 251

7.4.1. Electrolytes.. 252

7.4.2.Dissociation, hydration, conductivity of ions.. 253

7.4.3.Degree of dissociation, strength of electrolytes.. 254

7.4.4. Dissociation constant.. 255

7.4.5.Ostwald’s dilution law.. 257

7.4.6.Solubility product.. 257

7.4.7. Conductivity.. 258

7.5. Acids and bases .. 259

7.5.1.Definitions of acids and bases.. 260

7.5.2.Arrhenius definition.. 260

7.5.3.Theory of Brønsted and Lowry .. 261

7.5.4. Lewis’s theory.. 261

7.5.5.Summary of acid-base theories.. 262

7.5.6.Determination of acidity.. 263

7.5.7. Acidity, pH concept, measuring of pH.. 263

7.5.8. Neutralization, titration.. 267

7.5.9. Hydrolysis.. 268

7.5.10.Buffers.. 270

7.6.Hardness of water .. 271

7.6.1.Expressions of water hardness.. 272

7.6.2. Removal of hardness (softening of water).. 273

7.6.3. Distillation.. 273

7.6.4.Thermal method.. 273

7.6.5.Chemical methods.. 274

7.6.6.Physico-chemical methods.. 275

8. Electrochemistry.. 277

Halina Krawiec

8.1.Oxidation – reduction reactions (redox reactions) .. 277

8.2.Electrochemical reactions.. 278

8.3. Electrochemical equilibrium.. 279

8.3.1.Electrochemical potential.. 279

8.3.2.Kinetics of electrochemical reaction, equilibrium,exchange current, Nernst Equation .. 280

8.4.Measurements of electrode potential, reference electrodes.. 283

8.5.Galvanic series.. 284

8.6. Galvanic cells.. 286

8.6.1.Galvanic cells – examples.. 288

8.6.2.Alkaline batteries.. 288

8.6.3. Lead-acid battery: Pb|PbO2|H2SO4, H2O|PbSO4|Pb .. 289

8.6.4. Fuel cells.. 290

8.7. Electrolysis. Application of electrolysis .. 293

8.7.1. Laws of electrolysis.. 294

8.7.2.Application of electrolysis in industry.. 294

8.7.2.1.Electrolysis of molten sodium chloride.. 294

8.7.2.2.Extraction of aluminum by electrolysis.. 295

8.7.2.3.Silver electroplating.. 296Literature.. 297

9. Corrosion and corrosion protection.. 298

Halina Krawiec

9.1. Introduction.. 298

9.2.Electrochemical corrosion.. 299

9.2.1.Anodic and cathodic reactions.. 300

9.2.2.Electrode potential.. 301

9.2.3.Corrosion rate.. 302

9.2.4. Types of corrosion cells.. 302

9.2.5.Corrosion of iron and steel, formation of rust – example.. 303

9.2.6. Types of corrosion.. 304

9.2.7. Protection from corrosion.. 309

9.3.High-temperature corrosion (dry corrosion, HTC).. 318

Literature.. 320

10. Organic chemistry.. 321

Edyta Proniewicz

10.1. Introduction.. 321

10.2.Nomenclature.. 321

10.3. Properties.. 325

10.3.1. Isomerism.. 326

10.3.2. Atom order .. 328

10.4. Hybridization.. 329

10.5. Classification.. 332

10.5.1. Hydrocarbons.. 332

10.5.1.1.General properties.. 332

10.5.1.2. Isomers.. 334

10.5.1.3.Alkanes.. 334

10.5.1.4.Alkenes.. 335

10.5.1.5.Alkynes.. 336

10.5.1.6.Cyclohydrocarbons.. 337

10.5.1.7. Arenes.. 338

10.5.2.Halogenated hydrocarbons.. 339

10.5.3.Hydrocarbon derivatives.. 340

10.5.3.1. Amines.. 340

10.5.3.2. Alcohols.. 342

10.5.3.3. Ethers.. 343

10.5.3.4.Carbonyl compounds.. 345

10.5.4. Carbohydrates.. 352

10.5.5.Nucleic acids.. 356

10.5.6.Amino acids, peptides, and proteins .. 357

Literature.. 360

11. Polymers.. 361

Gaetano Palumbo

11.1. Introduction.. 361

11.2. Classification.. 362

11.3. Polymerization.. 368

11.4. Addition polymerization (chain-growth).. 369

11.5.Condensation polymerization (step-growth).. 373

11.6.Amorphous and crystalline classification.. 375

11.7.Mechanical property of polymers.. 378

11.8. Effect of temperature .. 384

Literature.. 395